Research Information System
Chemosphere, vol.399, 2026 (Scopus)
Cypermethrin (CYP) and its major metabolite 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) are widely used and environmentally relevant synthetic pyrethroids, yet their concurrent occurrence and transfer dynamics in terrestrial ecosystems remain poorly understood. A multi-matrix and multi-season field study was carried out across agricultural, urban, forest and steppe habitats within four geographical regions of Türkiye to determine the distribution of these compounds in soils, water, grass, earthworms and in the fat, muscle, hair and spine tissues of the Southern white-breasted hedgehog ( Erinaceus concolor ). Intact road-killed hedgehogs (n = 144) and co-located environmental samples were collected in spring, summer and autumn, and residues were measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. According to results, both compounds were detected widely, with soils (CYP: mean 11.90 ng g−1; 3-PBA: 6.78 ng g−1) showing the highest concentrations and the strongest relationships with tissues, particularly for 3-PBA. Seasonal variation was pronounced: CYP in fat (7.47 ng g−1) and muscle (4.56 ng g−1) increased more than fourfold from spring (3.05 ng g−1) to autumn (13.84 ng g−1), while 3-PBA showed more consistent seasonal pattern but maintained correlations between environmental matrices (soil, grass, worms, and water) and tissue concentrations (up to R2 = 0.78). When all habitats and seasons were combined, the strength of the environmental–tissue association differed markedly between compounds. For 3-PBA, the environmental–tissue relationship was characterized by R2 = 0.66, whereas the corresponding association for CYP was substantially weaker (R2 = 0.15). These indicate that the metabolite 3-PBA provides a more stable integrative marker of environmental exposure. Habitat and region significantly influenced contamination levels across matrices, whereas sex and age showed no significant effects and low effect sizes. The strong environmental–tissue coupling of 3-PBA highlights the importance of including metabolites in monitoring and supports further research on their persistence, transfer pathways and ecological impacts.